Common Glossary | Technical Glossary
Glossary of common usage terms
alteration Any change made to an object. A repair is a form of alteration, but an alteration is not a form of repair.
antiquity The term refers to ancient times, and generally is used for objects at least 1000 years old.
artifact An object created by or resulting from human activity. In common usage, the term connotes an object created in an earlier time.
authentic Original and not an imitation, being actually and exactly as claimed.
forgery An object made to resemble another, and made with the intent to deceive.
normal & acceptable Variable criteria. The age, medium, size, rarity, condition and environment in which a type of artifact is found all contribute to the parameters of this definition.
restoration An attempt to return a damaged object closer to its original condition.
restructuring An unacceptable altering of an artist's or craftsman's intent. Usually accomplished by adding features or changing positions of existing features.
alkaline (Mineralogy) Containing the hydroxide anion, OH¯. Also referred to as "basic". i.e. an alkaline copper carbonate is the same as a basic copper carbonate.
AMS Accelerator mass spectrometry
anaglyph In the most basic of terms, a two-colored image that, when viewed through the appropriately colored lenses, produces a three-dimensional image.
anion An ion with a negative electrical charge.
anneal (Metallurgy) Heat treatment to produce a desired property, such as hardness or microstructure, or desired effect, such as stress relief.
Argali: wild sheep of semi-desert regions in Central Asia
atacamite A green, basic copper chloride Cu2(OH)3Cl.
azurite The blue basic copper carbonate 2(CuCO3)•Cu(OH)2.
BCE "Before Common Era" The modern equivalent of the Christian calendar based date designation "BC".
Bixie: An often depicted Chinese mythical beast, a variant of the Chimera
Bo: A bell with a flat (as opposed to arched) lip suspended from a loop
BP "Before Present" A designation, as used in radiocarbon dating, in which "present" is defined as the year 1950 CE. All radiocarbon dates use this designation, eliminating the need to know the year in which the test for radiocarbon was performed.
bronze disease A series of chemical reactions associated with chloride contamination of copper and copper alloys, which can cause significant damage to the metal.
carbon-14 A naturally occurring radioactive isotope of carbon, having an atomic mass of approximately 14. Also known as radiocarbon. It is formed by the interaction of cosmic radiation and nitrogen atoms in the atmosphere.
carbonate (Mineralogy) A class of mineral containing the carbonate anion CO3²¯.
cation An ion with a positive electrical charge.
CE "Common Era" The modern equivalent of the Christian calendar based date designation "AD".
Ceramic: Fired clay
cerussite The lead carbonate PbCO3, which is generally colorless, white or pale in color.
Chimera: An imaginary beast composed of features of miscellaneous beasts. It is often sculpted as a protective guardian figure to be used in tombs and on spirit roads, but was also incorporated as a motif in bases for oil lamps, standards, and money trees, as well as numerous talismanic forms.
cold work In terms of metallurgy, the application of physical stress, such as hammering or embossing, resulting in deformation of the solid metal, at a temperature below the annealing temperature of that metal.
corundum (Mineralogy) The aluminum oxide Al2O3.
cuprite The copper oxide Cu2O, which is generally red in color, but may appear orange, yellow-orange or nearly brown.
deliquescence (Chemistry) Absorption of atmospheric water by a crystalline solid.
dendrite A crystal with a tree-like structure, having a trunk with branches.
Devanagari: an alphabet developed around the 11th century CE usually employed for Sanskrit and also used for various languages of India
Dharmachakra, Dharma-Wheel: also known as the Eight-Spoked Wheel, Wheel of Law, or Wheel of Truth. The wheel represents Buddhist teachings, and the eight paths to enlightenment. It can also represent the spreading of Buddhism from India to other regions.
Ding: A ritual vessel for cooked food with a round body and three legs. This form has been used from the earliest bronze age to contemporary times.
Dog: Dogs represent justice and equality. It is the 11th symbolic animal of the Chinese Zodiac. It is said that “The coming of a dog indicates future prosperity. Many people believe that if a strange dog comes, and remains with one it is an omen of good to his family, indicating that he will become more wealthy.”
dose tampering In relation to thermoluminescence testing, the deliberate irradiation of an object, increasing the energy absorbed by that object, in an attempt to reproduce the effects of natural energy absorption over a prolonged period of time.
Dou: A ritual vessel for offering food, shaped as a shallow cup on a pedestal foot and usually lidded. This form was made in bronze starting in the late Western Zhou (1111-770B CE).
Dragon: The dragon is most often defined as the symbol of the Emperor, the Son of Heaven and eternity. There are three chief species of the dragon; the lung (which is supposedly the most powerful and lives in the sky), the li (which is said to not have horns and resides in the ocean), and the chiao (which purportedly has many scales and inhabits marshes and dens in the mountains). K’uei is a primitive form of the dragon. It is said to be a benevolent creature, and in its traditional form, it is a decorative element used on ancient bronzes and is believed to guard against the sin of greed. Since the Han Dynasty (206 BCE), the five clawed dragon was the symbol of imperial power and was only to be used by the Emperor’s sons and princes of the first and second rank. Princes of the third and fourth rank were allowed to use the four clawed dragon and princes of the fifth rank and certain officials were permitted to use a serpent like creature with five claws.
Dui: A ritual food vessel consisting of two matching halves of equal size that make a spherical box when together and two bowls when separated, both halves of the dui form have extended legs which are quite often ornamental. Dui were not used before the Eastern Zhou (770-256 BCE) and they are sometimes called dun.
Earthenware: Pottery made from a porous clay that is fired at relatively low temperatures.
EDS Energy dispersive spectrometry, spectroscopy or spectrometer
efflorescence (Chemistry) Loss of excess water by a hydrated crystalline solid.
electromagnetic spectrum The range of wavelengths and frequencies of electromagnetic radiation (photons). At one end of the spectrum are gamma rays, with short wavelengths and high frequencies. At the other end are radio waves, with long wavelengths and low frequencies. Visible light is a tiny portion of the total spectrum. The boundaries between the various regions of the spectrum are not absolute.
electron A stable sub-atomic particle, with a negative electrical charge, which orbits the nucleus of an atom.
EMP, EMPA, EPMA Electron microprobe, electron microprobe analysis, electron probe micro-analysis. The terms are often used interchangeably.
eutectoid (Metallurgy) A simplified definition is a mixture of phases.
Fat Lady: The form of the “fat lady” is said to be derived from Yang Guifei, the most beautiful and favorite concubine of Emperor Tang Ming Huang (also known as Xuanzong).
ferrous In metallurgy, a metal containing the element iron (ferrum), other than as an impurity. The term ferrous is used to distinguish iron-containing alloys from all others.
Fongxian: An area near Xian in Shaanxi Province. Famous during the Tang Dynasty (618-906 CE) for very well defined, small scale sculpture, with the prancing horse being perhaps the most sought after.
fractionation Variations in the isotope ratio of a substance as a result of the different atomic masses of the isotopes. Chemical reactions may favor one isotope over another, and physical processes may affect each isotope differently, resulting in enrichment or depletion of an isotope within a substance. Though sometimes defined as being the result of physical and chemical differences between isotopes, the variations in chemical reactivity are a function of atomic mass.
half-life The time required for one-half of a quantity of a radioactive isotope to decay to its stable isotope.
Hubei: Hubei is a central province in China and is an ancient name that has been associated with the eastern part of the Province since the Qin Dynasty (221-206 BCE). The name Hubei means “north of the lake (Hu-lake, Bei-north) referring to Hubei’s position north of Dongting Lake. Most of the finest of ancient Chinese lacquered pieces have been from this province
hydrolysis (Mineralogy) A chemical reaction between a mineral and water, resulting in the alteration of the mineral to a hydroxide mineral.
hydroxide (Mineralogy) A class of mineral containing the hydroxide anion OH¯.
ion An atom or molecule with an electrical charge, either positive or negative. (See anion and cation.)
ionization The process by which an atom or molecule gains or loses one or more electrons, thus attaining an electrically charged state, either positive or negative.
iridium radiograph A form of gamma radiography, as opposed to X-radiography, using iridium as the gamma ray source.
isotope Atoms with the same number of protons, but different numbers of neutrons. It is the number of protons that identifies an atom as a specific element. Therefore, if two atoms have the same number of protons, but different numbers of neutrons, they are isotopes of the same element.
Jingzhou, Hubei: Jingzhou is a city in the Hubei Province of China on the banks of the Yangtze River. The ancient city of Jingzhou is what is now Jiangling District of Jingzhou city. Jingzhou was the capital of 20 kings over 411 years of the State of Chu during the Spring and Autumn Period (722-481 BCE) and the Warring States Period (453-221 BCE) of the Zhou dynasty
Kowtow: to kneel and touch the forehead to the ground in token of homage, worship, or deep respect
lattice structure (Mineralogy) A regular and repeating arrangement of the atoms in a crystalline solid.
Lead-210 (210Pb, Pb-210) A radioactive isotope of lead, with an atomic mass of 210, having a half-life of approximately 22.3 years. It is one of the intermediate products in the decay series of radioactive uranium-238 to stable lead-206.
Lintel: A horizontal structural element that spans an opening, as between the uprights of a door or window or between two columns or piers.
Lohan: A lohan is a personal disciple of Buddha who has followed the Eightfold Path, has conquered all passions, and who is no longer subject to re-birth or karma. An earthly existence and ignorance are no longer part of his life, he has attained Nirvana. Originally there were only 16 Lohans, two more were added during the Tang Dynasty. Their images are often arranged along the side walls of Buddhist monasteries. Each Lohan is quite often shown with a distinctive feature or gesture.
Lokapala In Sanskrit means "world protector". Lokapalas were the Guardians of the four directions and were usually placed in pairs at the entrance to tombs. As Guardians they could call upon the spirits of the next world to help them protect the tomb if necessary.
malachite The green basic copper carbonate CuCO3xCu(OH)2.
metallography The study of the structure of metals. In terms of archaeological metals, this includes the study of the nature and patterns of corrosion within the metal.
mineralization The replacement of an organic material by an inorganic substance. Also known as fossilization or petrifaction.
Mingqi: Literal translation: "items for the next world". In ancient China mingqi were items made to accompany the deceased in burial. In modern times they are usually paper items burned as part of the funerary rituals.
minium (Mineralogy) The red lead oxide Pb3O4.
monochromatic X-rays X-rays with a very small range of wavelengths. X-rays are a form of light. Like the visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum, different wave-lengths appear different colors. mono-single, chromatic-pertaining to color
morphology In terms of mineralogy, the form that a mineral takes, which is not its crystal system. Also known as the mineral's "habit". Individual crystals within a mass belong to a specific crystal system, but the overall shape of the mass may bear no resemblance to the shape of the crystals. Minerals from different systems may take the same form. Malachite belongs to the monoclinic crystal system, and smithsonite belongs to the hexagonal, but both minerals can take botryoidal (rounded) form. A given mineral may be able to develop in more than one habit.
nantokite (Mineralogy) Cuprous chloride CuCl.
nitrogen-14 Natural, elemental nitrogen, which has an atomic mass of approximately 14. It is this atom which is altered to carbon-14, and back to which carbon-14 eventually decays.
non-ferrous In metallurgy, the term indicates a metal which lacks the element iron, (ferrum), except as an impurity.
oxide (Mineralogy) A class of mineral containing the oxide anion O²¯.
oxidize (Chemistry) To combine with oxygen. (Metallurgy) To lose one or more electrons.
paratacamite (Mineralogy) A green, basic copper chloride Cu2(OH)3Cl. It is a dimorph of atacamite, having the same chemical composition but a different crystal classification. Atacamite belongs to the orthorhombic crystal system while paratacamite belongs to the monoclinic system.
pastiche In terms of purported antiquities, it is an object composed of pieces from various sources.
permineralization The filling in of pores and hollows in organic substances by minerals.
Phoenix - Feng-Huang –The phoenix represents the Empress, beauty, goodness, warmth, prosperity, rebirth, peace, the Sun, abundance harvests, and reason in government. It is commonly associated with the empress. It is adorned with everything that is beautiful among birds. Although it can also assume the attributes (virtues) of any beast, it is considered the Emperor and most honorable of all birds. The phoenix is a benevolent creature and supposedly only appears when peace, prosperity and reason prevail in the country.
Polo: One of the earliest equestrian games in China was polo. Murals of the Han Dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE) depict the horseback game of polo. This sport was originally used to train the military as a technique to learn horsemanship and later evolved into a pass-time of the elite. In China, primarily in the Tang Dynasty, polo was played by both men and women.
Porcelain: This term is used for high-fired white ceramic, whose bodies transmit light and make a ringing sound when struck
Pottery: Ware shaped from moist clay and hardened by heat
ppm Parts per million
pseudomorph (mineral) A mineral with the external appearance of another object, as a result of having replaced that object. Minerals can replace other minerals as well as organic matter. Petrified wood is a mineral pseudomorph of wood. pseudo-false, morph-form
Qingbai: This Southern Chinese Song Dynasty term literally means ‘blue-white’ also known as ‘shadow blue’. This term is used to describe the glaze color of porcelain ceramics which have a transparent glaze with a blue tint which comes from iron impurities in the glaze. It is one of the oldest and most wide spread of the decorative arts. Yingqing is a more recent term for this type of ware.
radiocarbon The carbon-14 isotope.
Red Bronze: An alloy (a solid solution of two or more metals) rich in copper with only a small amount of alloying elements that do not include tin.
redeposited copper (Metallurgy) Elemental (metallic) copper formed by the reduction of copper-based corrosion products.
reduce (Metallurgy) To bring to the metallic state by adding one or more electrons, resulting in a neutral electrical charge. (Chemistry) 1. To gain one or more electrons. 2. To gain hydrogen.
rpm Rotations per minute
Sancai: A combination of three different colored lead glazes. The most usual color combination is amber, cream and green, although blue and black are sometimes used. This type of glaze was popular during the Tang Dynasty (618-906 CE).
Shaanxi: A northwestern Province of China. Thirteen feudal dynasties (lasting more than 1100 years from the Zhou Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty) have established their capitals in this province.
Shamanism: The traditional healing and religious practices of Northern Asia that is characterized by belief in an unseen world of gods, demons, and ancestral spirits responsive only to the shaman.
Sichuan: A province of South-Central China. With Chengdu as its capital, it literally translates to “four rivers” (si-four, chuan-rivers). This province was famous for its magnificent Shang Dynasty bronzes and its charming Han Dynasty pottery sculpture.
Silver Frost: A recent accepted term used to describe an iridescent patina that is the result of wet and dry periods in a tomb whereby the clay dissolved the lead glaze and redeposits it on the surface, where it hardens.
Stoneware: A high-fired, nonporous, strong opaque ceramic ware.
streak color In mineralogy, the color of a mark produced by drawing a mineral across a black or white ceramic plate.
Taotieh – “Demon-Devourer” – Taotieh is a term generally used to describe various zoomorphic head shapes found on metal, ceramic and stone vessels and architectural elements throughout the entirety of Chinese recorded history. It appears on bronze vessels of the Shang dynasty and thereafter on objects in various media, especially those with archaistic decoration. The taotieh’s most noted quality is that it is supposed to devour demons and evil in all forms. It is also known as a sacrificial animal, warning against gluttony. This stylized full-face zoomorphic mask with ears, horns and large fangs, is not really one beast, but the combination of many.
Terracotta: A brownish-red fired clay used for statuettes, vases and architectural purposes
TL Thermoluminescence.
Tortoise: The tortoise is one of the four spiritually endowed creatures, along with the unicorn, phoenix and dragon. It is sacred to China and is an emblem of longevity, strength and endurance. Its dome-shaped back represents the vault of the sky and its belly the earth. The upper part of the shell is said to have markings corresponding to the constellations in the heavens (and is the yang); the lower shell has lines answering to the earth (and is the yin). It moves upon the waters, and its nature is considered spiritual. It is a symbol of longevity due to it being considered imperishable, the “Record of Science” puts the age limit of the tortoise at 1,000 years.
ultraviolet light Light with a range of wavelengths shorter than those of visible light and longer than those of X-rays.
WDS Wavelength dispersive spectrometry, spectroscopy or spectrometer
Xian: Literally translated it means “Western Peace”. It is the capital of Shaanxi province and has been the capital of 13 dynasties. Xian is the eastern end of the famed Silk Road.
X-ray A form of electromagnetic radiation, with a range of wavelengths between those of ultraviolet light and gamma radiation.
XRD X-ray diffraction
XRF X-ray fluorescence