Ancient Chinese Bronze 

Bronze is essentially an alloy of copper and tin, though lead was often deliberately added to the metal in ancient China. China's Bronze Age is considered to cover the period from the Xia through the Zhou dynasties, but many exceptional bronzes were made even after this period.    Bronze is believed to have first appeared in China during the Xia Dynasty (c. 2100-1600 BCE).  Among the oldest Chinese bronzes found to date are two small mirrors, made by the Qijia culture, that have been dated to approximately 2000 BCE.  A significant number of other bronze artifacts come from the Erlitou cultural ruins of the late Xia.  These objects are mostly utilitarian and simply adorned, if decorated at all.  Weapons, tools, and vessels are represented in the bronze archaeological record from this time.  Though some objects, such as the three-legged cauldron known as ding, were of relatively simple design, others were of complex shape.  The piece molds needed to craft such vessels indicate the existence of an advanced casting technology even at the beginning of the Bronze Age in China.  

Shang you	Shang zun	Taotieh mask design on a Shang zun

By the Shang Dynasty (c. 1600-1111 BCE) the process of bronze casting had become a highly developed art.  Though weapons and utilitarian objects continued to be made of bronze, it is the ritual vessels that are perhaps best known by those interested in ancient Chinese bronze.  Detailed decorative elements became common, and the taotieh mask was frequently employed.  Some vessels displayed a simple silhouette, while others were adorned with elaborate flanges, often zoomorphic in form.  The degree of decoration varied greatly, with some bronzes being virtually unadorned and others being almost completely covered in cast detail.  A number of Shang bronzes display traces of a black substance in the sunken areas of cast designs.  There is evidence that this material was deliberately applied to some items, while others may simply retain traces of soil and soot that collected naturally during use.  Inscriptions on Shang bronzes tended to be short and often consisted of only a clan sign.

Western Zhou he	Eastern Zhou ding	Warring States tui

The Zhou Dynasty (c. 1111-256 BCE) covers a considerable number of centuries, and has provided a vast number of exceptional bronze artifacts.  Historically, the Zhou is divided into two periods, the Western and Eastern Zhou.  Both the form and decoration of bronzes varied greatly throughout the Zhou Dynasty.  One trend that remained constant was the frequent use of long inscriptions in cast bronzes.  Historical events were recorded, along with names and dates, and much information about the history of ancient China has been gained from these writings.

Western Zhou ding	Western Zhou gui

Intricate pattern and black inlay on a Western Zhou ding	Simplified pattern on a Western Zhou gui

Western Zhou (c. 1111-760 BCE) bronzes displayed the same range of decoration seen during the Shang.  Vessels could be either unadorned or extensively decorated, and decorative elements were often quite similar to those of the Shang.  During the Early Western Zhou, decorations tended to include minute details, such as the square spiral or leiwen pattern, and the Shang custom of applying a black inlay to the grooves was carried over to some of these early pieces.  By the Late Western Zhou, the decorative elements were generally of more simplified designs, involving bold lines against a smooth background.

Early Eastern Zhou  jian	Warring States  pei	Warring States ding	Inscription in an E. Zhou jian

The Eastern Zhou (c. 770-256 BCE) is subdivided into the Spring and Autumn period (c. 722-481 BCE) and the Warring States period (c. 453-221 BCE).  Tremendous variety of form and decoration existed in bronzes throughout the Eastern Zhou.  Ritual bronzes from this dynasty are renowned for undercut high-relief decorations and openwork castings.  Inlays of precious metal and semi-precious stone became more common, with many exceptional examples dating to the Warring States period.  Large, often lidded, vessels known as jian appear to have been made only during this era.  The use of long inscriptions in bronze vessels continued, recording military and political events and the awarding of honors.  By the end of the Warring States, the script used to inscribe bronzes had changed from the highly pictographic archaic form to one more closely resembling modern Chinese writing.

Spring & Autumn hu	Detail of hu decoration	Spring & Autumn style dui

During the Spring and Autumn period, numerous techniques of adornment were used on bronze vessels.  Objects of elaborate and detailed three-dimensional decoration were crafted alongside graceful profiles, unobscured by frills.  Cast decoration could be either high- or low-relief, and inlays of copper, low-tin bronze, and minerals began to appear.  New shapes, such as the spherical dui were introduced, and lids were added to many ding.  

Gold, glass and turquoise inlaid sword	Tin plated-bronze chariot fittings	Silver inlaid fittings	Inlaid belt-hook

Not surprisingly, the period known as the Warring States saw the production of vast numbers of weapons and other objects associated with warfare.  Ceremonial weapons, and those belonging to high-ranking officials, were often generously adorned.  Exceptional inlay work can be found in the guards and pommels of many swords, and even some of the blades were decorated in this manner.  Numerous fittings for chariots and horse harnesses have survived from this period.  Fittings were occasionally plated with tin, but many were lavishly decorated with inlays of gold, silver and turquoise.  Another type of object of which numerous Warring States examples have survived is garment hooks, sometimes referred to specifically as belt-hooks.  These functional items were often extensively inlaid with metal and semi-precious stone, including jade.  In addition to the use of inlay, bronze belt-hooks were cast with high-relief decoration, often zoomorphic in form.  Gilding and the application of thick sheets of embossed gold foil were also popular decorative techniques on these small works of art.  

Qin ridged cocoon vessel

The Qin Dynasty (c. 221-206 BCE) lasted for a short period but is of tremendous historical significance, as it saw the unification of China under a single Emperor.  Many of the surviving bronzes of this time are listed as Warring States/Han, and are difficult to distinguish as Qin based on form or decoration.  Cocoon shaped vessels first appeared during the Warring States, and continued to be produced until around 150 BCE, during the Western Han.  The vast majority were made from pottery, and bronze examples are very rare.  The ridged form of cocoon vessel is associated with the very late Warring States into the Qin Dynasty.

Han lidded ding	Han gilt-bronze bian hu	Inscription on a Han ding

With the Han Dynasty (c. 206 BCE – 220 CE) came a trend toward simplification of ritual vessels.  Finials, handles, and simple raised lines often formed the only three-dimensional ornamentation.  The intricate detail previously achieved through cast decoration was replaced by incised designs.   Gilding became another popular decorative technique on ritual vessels.  Inscriptions were written in characters that had taken on a form similar to modern Chinese.  Following the Qin Dynasty development of a standardized system of weights and measures, the weight of a bronze vessel was now frequently recorded along with the date of manufacture and the owner's name.  Bronze mirrors were another source of inscriptions, though these texts were more often poetry.  Many Han mirrors were extensively decorated with geometric patterns cast in shallow-relief.

Gilded & inlaid phoenix	Painted-bronze gambler	Long-necked dog	Prancing horse

Many statues have survived from the Han, including detailed models of chariots, complete with horse and groom.  Animals, both real and mythical, and people were also depicted in bronzes of this period.  Decorative techniques included painting, gilding and inlay.  Some of the most impressive Han sculptures are the large multi-piece horse statues, which often stand three feet or more in height.  

Six Dynasties "Flying Dragon" fittings  

The strong centralized government of the Han was replaced by multiple rival kingdoms and states, and the use of bronze for sculpture and ritual vessels declined for several hundred years.  The political fragmentation that marks the Six Dynasties (c. 220-581 CE) is reflected in its art.  During this period, strong foreign influences were felt in the North, while many of the traditions of the Han were retained in the South.  Artistic styles became more regionalized.  Many of the objects previously crafted from bronze were instead being made from pottery.  Mirror styles of the later Han were copied during the early Six Dynasties, but then the manufacture of bronze mirrors declined, possibly replaced by mirrors of steel.  Buddhism finally gained a stronghold in China, and Buddhist bronzes are among the more common artifacts from this period.  The technique known as "lost wax casting" was often employed to cast religious figures, which were usually gilded and often inscribed with the date of manufacture.  Though large pieces were cast, most of the surviving bronzes from the Six Dynasties are relatively small but of high quality, and include religious figures and ornaments.  

Sui mirror, depicting the sishen	The red bird (zhuque) of the east, one of the four sishen	Poetry on the mirror rim

The Sui Dynasty (581-617CE) saw the reunification of China, and marked the beginning of the Golden Age of Buddhism, which was reflected in the art of the period.  Sculptures of various Buddha abound, especially the Amitabha Buddha; the Buddha of Boundless Light.  In addition to the frequent use of extensive ornamentation, many religious bronzes were gilded.  Another form of bronze art well represented among Sui artifacts is the mirror.  These functional items were once again crafted into stunning works of art.  Ornamentation on the mirror back covered a wide range of subjects, including the sishen, or animals of the four cardinal directions, and the twelve animals of the Chinese zodiac.  Poems were frequently cast as inscriptions near the rim, and decorative patterns from earlier Han mirrors were also copied.  

Incised Tang bronze dining set	Mirror with silver & lacquer	Tang gilded-bronze censer

Though the Golden Age of Buddhism continued into the Tang Dynasty (618-906 CE) the religion was eventually banned in 845 CE.  Vast numbers of Buddhist bronzes were confiscated and destroyed as a result.  Thankfully, exquisite examples of bronze Buddha, Guanyin, and various other religious items survived.  As with Buddhist art of the Sui, many of these pieces were extensively gilded.  This decorative technique was also used on secular ornaments, while incised designs and an induced "mirror black" patina enriched the appearance of many other items.  The trend of copying Han mirror patterns continued for a time but eventually new patterns, such as the lion and grape, emerged.  New mirror shapes, such as square, octagonal, lobed and foiled, also appeared.  In addition to cast designs, the use of precious metal inlays in lacquer became popular for decoration on mirror backs.  

The use of bronze declined after the Tang and, compared to the abundant artifacts from the earlier dynasties, relatively few large ancient bronzes exist from the period between the Tang and Ming.  The Five Dynasties (907-960 CE), Liao Dynasty (916-1125 CE), Song Dynasty (960-1279 CE), and Jin Dynasty (1115-1234 CE) overlapped, creating a period of artistic disorder.  Perhaps the best known and most abundant artifacts from this age are attributed to the Song Dynasty.   The Song saw a revival of ritual vessels cast in the forms of the Shang and Zhou.  Even the ornamentation of these earlier works was echoed and, by the end of the Song, techniques were being employed to induce a patina suggestive of that on the archaic bronzes.  One contemporary addition was the use of inlay, particularly of gold and silver.  This form of decoration can help to distinguish many Song archaistic bronzes from the Shang and Zhou works they copy.  Religious artifacts of the Song are largely limited to figures of Guanyin/Avalokitesvara, and the designs often bear a strong Indian influence.  As was the tradition in earlier eras, these pieces were often gilded.  Gilding was also employed on numerous small ornaments, such as belt plaques.  Many Song mirrors use a foiled or lobed edge, but one of the most interesting developments was the addition of a handle to a thin, round mirror.  In general, the tin content of mirrors lowered while the lead content increased.  The lower tin resulted in mirrors of yellow bronze, rather than white.  

Antique Chinese Bronze

Technically, the term "ancient" does not apply to materials made less than 1000 years ago.  As such, any bronzes made after the late Song are not truly ancient.  Nonetheless, many exceptional works of art were crafted after this time.  Though the Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368 CE) continued the Song tradition of copying archaic vessel forms, pieces attributed to this period generally lack the technical and artistic skill of the Song works.  Yuan pottery and porcelain are much admired, but Yuan bronzes are often passed over for works of the later Ming Dynasty.  

Ming dynasty architectural bronze	A pair of seated Guanyin

Bronzes of high quality re-emerged in Chinese art during the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 CE), and include statues, censers, scholar's implements, and vessels.  Buddhist figures from this time are often considered lacking in the artistic appeal of earlier works, but some exquisite sculptures do exist, and many of these are extensively gilded.  Tibetan influences can be seen in numerous bodhisattvas from this era.  The interest in recreating ancient bronze vessel forms continued, but such Ming vessels often bear an artistic influence peculiar to this period and, unlike the earlier works, many of them contain a significant quantity of zinc.  Another nod to the past can be seen in the script used for some inscriptions on Ming bronze wares.  Known as "Seal Script", the characters closely resemble the rather pictographic writing of the Zhou.  Many bronzes included a type of inscription known as a "mark" or "seal", listing the period during which the piece was cast.  One of the best known seals is from the Xuande period (1426-1435 CE).  Both the materials and craftsmanship of Xuande bronzes tend to be of exceptional quality, and the pieces were highly prized even during the Ming.  It should be noted that the Xuande mark continued to be used long after 1435, as an indication that the item was crafted in the Xuande style.  As such, the presence of such a mark, even on an authentic antiquity, does not necessarily indicated the date of manufacture.